WORD COUNT:
- 2148
Critical investigation
– Even after all the negative stereotyping of Muslims, are there still positive
representations still possible?
Are there positive representations within the media of
Muslims
“Bombers, belly dancers or billionaires”[1]–
these are the stereotypical roles of Muslims in the contemporary media
landscape. Post 9/11, the role that Muslims play has changed, the group was
historically marginalised as “distorted”[2]
and “an extremist, fundamentalist religion”[3],
but the coverage of the war on terrorism has led to Muslims now being further
demonised. However, in today’s society, there are more values and ideologies
presented than would have been allowed before. Hegemonic power structures are
no longer as strong as they used to be, meaning that people who hold
alternative ideologies can now be owners of the media and present their views
as previously, “professional codes”[4]
were put in place “in which producers follow certain procedures”[5],
this meant that news had to be ‘politically correct’ which often means biased
views .This means that although mainstream media institutions still present
dominant values, alternative representations are still possible.
East is East is a British film which was released
in 1999. The film was made before the digital revolution, so audiences had
fewer ways of accessing information that is now freely available through new
technologies. Media institutions were owned by the hegemonic elite, and a
Marxist would argue that this meant that their values and ideologies were the
only ones being presented. According to the cultivation theory, this would lead
passive audience members into believing that the stereotypical views and
representations that the elite repeated in the media were true. East is East was set in Salford in the
70’s, and the secondary characters reflected the views that society had of
Muslims and immigrants at the time. The movie shows a family who immigrated to
Salford from Pakistan. They have Western characteristics, showing that they
have to abandon their cultures to be accepted by Britain. The protagonist has a
Western name, ‘George’, which could suggest that immigrants have to sacrifice
their culture completely, even down to their name. There is a scene where
George tells his wife, who is British, to ‘make’ him a cup of tea. Although he
has abandoned many aspects of his culture, he is still stereotypically Asian
when he is at home by placing orders. Another example of this within the movie
would be of George hitting his wife, the contact being used as an aberrant
code. The camera angle used was a high angle shot to show George being dominant
and his wife seem inferior and passive. The colours are also dark, reflecting
the mood. This act of violence could show a clash of cultures as some audience
members such e.g. Pakistanis may find this less shocking or even more
acceptable. According to the Desensitization theory, repetitive exposure to
violence may make an individual less prone to react to it. This again can
segregate Muslims and create cultural divide and conflict .This could create a
moral panic as it makes audiences less trusting of Pakistanis as he is
represented as having two different personalities. The repetition of orders
shows that in Asian families, women are subordinate characters. Britain is now
in a post-feminist society, so when British audiences see the subordination of
women, it could have a negative effect on people’s views on Muslims. An
alternative reading of the stereotypical patriarchal values of Pakistani’s
could lead audiences of different demographics to believe that Pakistani males
are misogynistic, which is not accepted by today’s Western society. This is
another representation of Pakistani’s that demonises them, which excludes them
not only from Western media, but also from Western society as audiences are
cultivated into believing that they are the ‘villain’. Pakistani’s are
continually stereotyped as also said be the theorist Hall, “Ethnic minorities
are continually misrepresented by racial (and racist) stereotypes” [6]
In 2010, the
sequel to East is East was released. ‘West is West’ is a comedy-drama hybrid
movie, and adds to the increasing number of British films that focus on Asian characters,
such as ‘Provoked’ (Jag Mundhra,2006) and Bend it like Beckham (Gurinder Chadha,2002). The release of the sequel emphasises the change in
dominant ideologies, leading to an increase in the demand for an ‘insight’ into
Asians. It can be argued that as audiences have more power in the current
digital age, they can no longer be hypodermically injected with hegemonic
values. User generated content has allowed for a more pluralistic approach
within the media and allowed for dominant ideologies to be challenged, audiences
are no longer as passive and want to see alternative representations so they
can make their own decisions. This may in turn remove the barrier and lead to
people wanting more of an insight into other cultures.
West is West has a target audience of young and
middle aged Asians who can identify with the characters, which is a key
audience gratification. As they are of the same demographic and most probably
psychographics, mainly aspirers, therefore can accept or challenge the stereotypes
of Asians depending on their personal experiences. The scriptwriter, Ayub
Khan-din, is Pakistani, meaning that he has a greater knowledge of Pakistani
culture. The increased use of Punjabi and Urdu compared to East is East appeals to a wider audience such as the first
generation of Asians and asylum seekers who can relate to the characters as
‘Asians now make up just over 3.5% of the total UK population’[7].
The film has an Irish director, Damien O’Donnell, and the combination of an
Eastern scriptwriter with a Western director would allow the film to appeal to a
wider audience as the movie shows a Pakistani family however through a white
person’s point of view, allowing non-Asian audiences to also identify with the
film. This shows how much attitudes have changed as in today’s society. Asia is
known for fashion, food etc this shows that ‘Mainstream, is no longer
synonymous with white’[8]. As “West is west” is co-produced by the BBC,
a public service broadcaster, they have a remit to “inform, educate and
entertain”[9]
viewers, so would have to present a variety of ideologies and representations.
They promote multiculturalism and represent ethnic minorities in a positive way
as; being a PSB they are unbiased.
However, due to the main protagonist being of an Asian background,
it allows Asian characters to be more than just a token which is rarely seen in
movies, This promotes multiculturalism but
simultaneously a negative view on Muslims. Even though differences are shown
between the two, it allows for the audience to create similarities between
themselves and Pakistani’s. Although the film is set in Pakistan, there are
still dominant Western ideologies present, which show that cultural imperialism
is still prominent. Also according the theorist Barthes’s, the highlighting of
stereotypes of Asians would become a ‘myth’ which is ‘dominantly coded’[10]
showing all Asian men are controlling and aggressive making it look like that’s
the case for every Asian male especially to the target audience who “decode”[11]
,who may know little or none about Pakistanis. This enforces western ideologies
and contributes to what the reality means to its audience which adds to the
large amount of mediation within the movie.
The use of grainy and dull contrast not only highlights the
fact that the movie is set in the 1970’s, but also the unhappiness and un-fulfilment
felt by all the main characters in the movie. The use of bright tints during
the trip to Pakistan connotes the fact that both the father and rebellious son
are happy in Pakistan. This gives it a sense of being ‘real’ as the audience
feel as if the events being shown actually take place and are a common
occurrence due to the authenticity of the shots and editing. However, during an
argument between the wife, played by Linda Basset and the husband little or no
tint is used to connote the tension, conflict and unhappiness between the two
also highlighting not only the inner differences but outer differences too such
as skin colour. However in reality ‘when blacks, whites and Asians can laugh
together the sting is taken from the prejudice or crude generalisation’[12]
One of the
main reasons for the increased number of British Asian movies is due to the
increased number of positive representations of Asians increase such as Mishal
Husein who is a BBC presenter from a Pakistani background. The highlighting of
Asian culture is evidence that the target audience of for this genre is
increasing and also, the secondary target audience e.g. People from a white
background are viewing this as more ‘normal’ .This is also made predominant by
the fact that the movie is filmed by the BBC.
Amir
Khan, who considers himself to be a British citizen from a Pakistani background
become one of the youngest boxers to represent Britain in the Olympics winning
gold in 2003. When fighting, Khan represents his diasporic identity by wearing
trunks with the union jack flag and Pakistan flag, this shows alternative
representations of Muslims as coverage within the media often show Muslims to
be ungrateful asylum seekers involved in terrorism. This is a positive representation as England
is being represented by a Pakistani Muslim. Lord Tebbit, a British MP, “challenged Asian
communities to stand with English national teams against the country of their
heritage as a test of their social integration, citizenship and loyalty to the
nation.” Wearing both a Pakistani flag and
England flag on his shorts and trainers not only shows his loyalty to his place
of birth but also to his roots, therefore giving him both a strong and large
fan base. In Khan’s vs. Mohammed Medjadji, at the beginning of the round a medium shot
is used to emphasize the point that khan is wearing shorts which have the union
jack on them; no attention is given to the opposing boxer’s shorts. The shot of
the flag is a high angle shot, making both Khan and the flag seem superior.
Before 9/11,
Muslim’s were under-represented in the media. As they were not recognised as
members of British society and the few Muslim’s that were represented in the
media were often only used as token characters. However, post 9/11 the
representation of Muslim’s changed. They became the Proppian villain of the
contemporary media landscape and the dominant representation of them showed
them as terrorists and people who refused to conform to Western ideologies, but
still wanted to come into the country. For a Muslim to be accepted by today’s
society, they would have to have more Western qualities than the characteristics
of their ethnic background. This is shown by the cousin of Amir Khan, Sajid
Mahmood, who plays cricket for England. As he is playing for the English team,
he is not demonised in the media. In a match against Pakistan both the audience
and the commentators made Sajid Mahmood feel as he was ‘other’. “Playing
against his own country” was one of the comments the commentators made, this
gave the reflection that even though Sajid Mahmood was born and raised in
England he was seen as ‘other’ as he did not fit into his England team fully
and neither in the Pakistani team which is backed up by the Diaspora identity
theory. However, Salman Butt and two cricket players, who play for Pakistan,
were part of a highly publicised rule break as they took money to deliberately
bowl no balls. This was heightened in the media, which could be because of
their background, adding more to the moral panic that Muslims are determined to
go against rules and have no morals. This suggests that the only way for
Muslims to be represented positively is if they accept Western ways.
A YouTube
hit under the title of “A Muslim Storeowner changes another man`s life By the
Grace of God”, a video were a robber armed with a baseball tries to rob a
convenience store, the shop owner then bends down as if he were trying to get
money and pulls out a rifle at which point the robber starts to cry and tells
the man he has a family to feed. The shop owner, a Muslim from a Pakistani
background gives the robber $40 dollars and a loaf of bread. This video was not
showed by news providers such as Fox as it would not have been allowed to by
the ‘gate keepers’ due to the fact it is alternative representation to the
stereotypical representations of Muslims as “Representation does not re-present
reality but actually contributes to what reality means “. According and Chomsky
and Herman , the reason for this would of been to avoid people rebelling
against the ‘superior’ if they have a common dislike/ hate such as Muslims,
making them passive audiences and according to the hypodermic needle are
‘injected’ with information.
To conclude
representations of Muslims in West is
West and society is varied. Though
some coincide with representations of Muslims on a global scale, there are also
many characters and scenarios in which ‘alternative’ views of Muslims are
portrayed. This is encouraged by the character of ‘George’ as towards the end
of the movie he is seen acclimatising to western society promoting positive
representations of Muslims within society.
Work Cited
Hylton, Kevin. 'Race' and sport critical race
theory. London: Routledge, 2009. Print.
Laughey, Dan. Media studies: theories and
approaches. Harpenden [England: Kamera Books, 2009. Print.
Mistry, Reena. "www.theory.org.uk Resources:
Hegemony and ethnic minorities." www.theory.org.uk -- the media theory
site. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.theory.org.uk/ctr-rol6.htm>.
Pieterse, Professor Jan Nederveen. "BBC - History
- British
History in depth: Stereotypical Representations of Black People in Modern
Western Societies." BBC - Homepage. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/abolition/black_imagery_gallery_08.shtml>.
"Sajid Mahmood - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia."
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sajid_Mahmood>.
"Wikipedia." Amir Khan (Boxer). N.p.,
n.d. Web. 1 Dec. 2013. <en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amir_Khan_(boxer)>.
terms, the Arab nationalist'. It was first defined in
mere political. "A Criticism of the Idea of Arab Nationalism." Al-Islam.org
by the Ahlul Bayt DILP - Home. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Feb. 2012.
<http://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/arabnationalism.htm>.
Work
Consulted
Bennett, Peter, and Jerry Slater. A2 media studies:
the essential introduction. London: Routledge, 2006. Print.
Wall, Peter. A2 Media Studies. Hoboken: Taylor
& Francis Ltd., 2006. Print.
Williams, Kevin. Understanding media theory.
London: H. Arnold, 2003. Print.
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Websites
http://www.bl.uk/sportandsociety/exploresocsci/sportsoc/sociology/articles/hylton.pdf - “Race” and Sport: Critical Race Theory , Kevin hylton
http://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/arabnationalism.htm - arab nationalism
http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0166175/ - east is east
http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1441956/ - west is west
http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0458072/ - provoked
http://www.bl.uk/sportandsociety/exploresocsci/sportsoc/sociology/articles/hylton.pdf - “Race” and Sport: Critical Race Theory , Kevin hylton
http://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/arabnationalism.htm - arab nationalism
http://www.okcir.com/Articles%20VIII%202/Navarro-FM.pdf
= islamiphobia and sexism in muslim females
http://www.digitalislam.eu/article.do?articleId=1423 = Representation
and Self-Representation: Arabs and Muslims in Digital Games
http://www.ibiblio.org/prism/jan98/anti_arab.html = 100 Years of
anti-Arab and anti-Muslim stereotyping
http://www.movie2k.to/West-Is-West-watch-movie-704591.html
http://www.okcir.com/Articles%20VIII%202/Navarro-FM.pdf
= islamiphobia and sexism in muslim females
http://www.digitalislam.eu/article.do?articleId=1423 = Representation
and Self-Representation: Arabs and Muslims in Digital Games
http://www.ibiblio.org/prism/jan98/anti_arab.html = 100 Years of anti-Arab and
anti-Muslim stereotyping
[2] Laughey, Dan. Media
studies: theories and approaches. Harpenden [England: Kamera Books, 2009.
Print. Pg 88.
[3] Ibid
[5] Ibid
[6] Laughey, Dan. Media
studies: theories and approaches. Harpenden [England: Kamera Books, 2009.
Print. Pg78
[7] www.bl.uk/vollections/business/adiandemographics.html
[9] http://www.bbc.co.uk/bbctrust/assets/files/pdf/about/how_we_govern/purpose_remits/nations.pdf
[10] Laughey, Dan. Media
studies: theories and approaches. Harpenden [England: Kamera Books, 2009.
Print. Pg 76
[11] Ibid
[12] ‘The Times’, 7
January, 1998
